To fulfill one of the tasks of the Pyscholinguitic Course which is supported by
Rini Susilowati, S.S, M.Pd
In English Education Study Program
Arranged by:
Yunida Nindiya
HIGH SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
MUHAMADIYAH KOTABUMI-LAMPUNG
JANUARY 2019
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER I 3
BASIC PSYCHOLINGUISTIC CONCEPT 3
1.1 Definition Phsycholinguistic 3
1.2 Development Or Stages Psycholinguistic 3
CHAPTER II 5
SPEECH PERCEPTION, COMPREHENDING SPEECH, SPEECH ERROR, AND SPEECH PRODUCTION 5
2.1 Perception Of Speech 5
2.2 Comprehension 5
2.4 Speech Errors 7
CHAPTER III 9
FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE AND ANIMAL COMMUNICATION 9
3.1 Human Language 9
3.2 Design Features Of Human Language 9
3.3 Animal Communication 10
3.4 Diffrence Animal Communication and Human Language 10
3.5 Signals Used For Animal Communication 11
CHAPTER IV 13
BRAIN LITERAZATION AND LANGUAGE ACQUISACTION 13
4.1 The Human Brain literaziation 13
4.2 First Language Acquisition 13
4.3 Factors Affecting L1 Acquisition 14
4.4 The Critical Period Hypothesis 14
4.5 Second-Language Acquisition 14
CHAPTER I
BASIC PSYCHOLINGUISTIC CONCEPT
- Definition Phsycholinguistic
Psycholinguistics is the study of how we acquire language with the science of psychology with the function of the brain that works to acquire language by using speech tools also in it and managing language with good behavior. In psycholinguistics there is scope or branch, namely
Neurolinguistics is a science related to the relationship of language with the human brain. Humans have 2 parts of the brain, the right brain and left brain that should work according to roles and tasks and how the brain works to regulate and obtain language. more clearly there are 2 areas in the brain, namely the Wernicke area and the Brocka area. Wernicke area is tasked with understanding the language of what is heard to make a sound or utterance. Whereas the area broca is continued from the area of wernicke obtaining sound from the area of wernicke in this area brocca which produces from every utterance or sound forms a regular arrangement of languages.
2. Development Or Stages Psycholinguistic
There are 4 stages or developments in psycholinguistics:
a. Formative Stage
Discussing the combination of psycho and linguistics about language science and about the soul or human pyschology.
b. Linguistic Stage
Leads to the acquisition of language, especially the question "Why do children everywhere get their language using the same strategy". Even the similarity of this strategy has been supported by the development of a neurolinguistic discipline
c. Cognitive Stage
At this stage psycholinguistics begins to lead to the role of cognition and the biological basis of humans in acquiring language.
d. Stage of Psycholinguistic Theory
Psycholinguistics no longer consists of psycho and linguistics, but also involves various other disciplines such as phonology, morphology, semantics, and others.
CHAPTER II
SPEECH PERCEPTION, COMPREHENDING SPEECH, SPEECH ERROR, AND SPEECH PRODUCTION
1. Perception Of Speech
The process whereby sensory stimulation is translated into organized experience. Perceptual organization reflects innate properties of the brain. Perception and brain functions are identical (isomorphic); to study perception = to study the brainthe appearance of the object from a place where there is a brain (or, in lower animals, some suitable nervous structure), with sense-organs and nerves forming part of the intervening medium . e.g. The Star? tree? rabbit?
2. Comprehension
The Construction Process is the process by which listeners come to an interpretation for a stream of speech. This is called the construction process
The Utilization Process is the process in which listeners use these interpretations for their intended purpose.
Propositions usually have one of three basic functions : to denote states or events, to denote facts about states or events, and to qualify parts of their propositions. Such functions can be illusstrated in the following sentences:
The troops defeating of the army took along time.
That the troops defeated the army surprises the king.
Thematic structure has three main functions: to convey given and new information, to convey the subject and predicate, and to convey the frame and insert.
Give information and new information
e.g. it is your brother who stole the money
given info : some one stole the money
new info : that someone was your brother
e.g. it is john who won the singing competition
give info :someone won the singing competition
new info : that someone is john
Information about subject and predicate
e.g. the police investigated the robbery
subject : the police
predicate : investigated the robbery
Giving frame and insert
e.g. fanny had a very high a fever last night her mother was worry
Frame : fanny had avery high fever last night.
Insert :her mother was worry.
3. Speech Production
Speech production is how to produce speech which thinking in the brain and planning and then output or say used vocal organs for become word, e.g sentences from the speech
Key point about speech production:
A. Conceptualization
Linguistic concepts are formed as two concurrent and parallel modes of thought.
→ syntactic thinking: segmented and linear, creates the strings of syllable, word, phrase, sentence
→ imagistic thinking: global and synthetic, tends to develop gestures to punctuate and illustrate conversation
B. Formulation
Think about this sentence:
"Rapid righting with his uninjured hand saved him from losing the contents of the capsized canoe".
The purpose of the example above is to compose sentences that are arranged to be spoken or pronounced.
Slips of the tongue/spoonerism
an actual word or phrase is created, often with a humorous twist to the meaning which was intended
e.g. the best in bread → the breast in bed
What is relevant to psycholinguistics is not what is being said, but how it is being said or misspoken.
C. Articulation
The electrical impulses streaming from the brain in the form of speech are transformed into audible and comprehensible production.
D. Self-monitoring
Examples:
1.The last I knowed about it (I mean knew about it), he had left Vancouver.
2.She was so drank (I mean drunk), that we decided to drive her home.
4. Speech Errors
The tip of the tongue phenomenon can be seen with non-pathological speakers and is characterised by a sudden block in lexical retrieval and which is released again for no apparent reason. Slips of the tongue involve the involuntary and unintended switching of elements among words of a sentence. Normally the onset or rhyme of adjacent syllables are switched and this phenomenon offers firm evidence for the validity of the syllable as a phonological unit.
5.Ambiguity
Ambiguity often becomes the bane of comprehension . sentences can be ambiguous on at least three levels: on lexical level ( lexical ambiguity), on syntactic relationship with ambiiguity in the surface structures ( surface structure ambiguity) and Deep Structure ( deep meaning or logical relationship)
.
- Lexical ambiguity
Sentences which are ambiguous on the lexical level of word are also called lexical ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence, she cannot bear children. What follows are some other examples of such lexically ambiguous sentences:
e.g. He took the right turn on the intersection
- he took the turn on the right side of the intersection
- he took turn which is right on the intersection
- Surface structure ambiguity
Sentences which are ambiguous in surface level of syntactic relationship are called surface structure ambiguity. Surface structure ambiguity is illustrated in the sentences, old man and woman are advised to apply for their benefits. What follows are some other examples of surface structure ambiguity:
e.g. Marry and joe or bill frightened the sheep dog
Marry and joe frightened the sheep dog
Bill frightened the sheep dog
- Deep Structure
Example:
Cheating student will not be tolerated
Student who cheating will not be tolerated (person)
Cheating the student will not be tolerated (activity)
CHAPTER III
FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE AND ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
1. Human Language
Human is capable of producing brand new sentences never before uttered in the history of the universe is called mental grammar
Children develop complex grammars rapidly and without formal instruction and grow up to give consistent interpretations to novel sentence constructions that they have never before encountered called universal grammar
Design Features Of Human Language
A. Vocal-auditory channel
Human communication utilizes sounds produced by a vocal system and received by an auditory system. The system leaves the rest of the body free to engage in other activities E.g. people also talk in the dark
B. Semanticity
The sound signals are meaningful. The series of sounds are assigned with meaning
.
C. Arbitrariness
There is no necessary connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. Onomatopoeic words
D. Discreteness
The sounds that make up the signal can be separated. Sentences can be parsed into phrases, phrases into words, words into morphemes, morphemes into phonemes.
E. Displacement
Human beings can communicate about things, activities, and ideas that are not tied to a certain place or time.They even talk about things that do not exist.
F. Productivity
The system is open for new inventions and development.New words, terminologies, expressions are coined or created.
G. Duality of Patterning
The order of sounds that make up a signal may be changed to form a new word because they consist of phonological elements (phonemes) that do not carry meaning. E.g. tap, pat, apt
H. Traditional or cultural Transmission
Human language is not something inborn. Human beings learn their first language through a process of socialization in a teaching-learning environment.
Animal Communication
Animal communication is any behavior on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Animal communication is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized
The sender and receiver of a communication may be of the same species or of different species. The majority of animal communication is intraspecies (between two or more individuals of the same species). However, there are some important instances of interspecies communication (between two or more individuals of different species).
Diffrence Animal Communication and Human Language
Human languages are characterized for having a double articulation. It means that complex linguistic expressions can be broken down in meaningful elements (such as morphemes and words), which in turn are composed of smallest meaningless phonetic elements, or phonemes. Animal signals, however, do not exhibit this dual structure.
In general, animal utterances are responses to external stimuli, and do not refer to matters removed in time and space. Matters of relevance at a distance, such as distant food sources, tend to be indicated to other individuals by body language instead, for example wolf activity before a hunt, or the information conveyed in honeybee dance language.
Human language is largely learned culturally, while animal communication systems are known largely by instinct.
In contrast to human language, animal communication systems are usually not able to express conceptual generalizations.
Human languages combine elements to produce new messages (a property known as creativity). One factor in this is that much human language growth is based upon conceptual ideas and hypothetical structures, both being far greater capabilities in humans than animals. This appears far less common in animal communication systems.
Signals Used For Animal Communication
There are several types of signals used for animal communication
1.Pheromone
A pheromone is a secreted chemical signal used to trigger a response in another individual of the same species. Pheromones may attract the opposite sex, raise an alarm, mark a food trail, or trigger other, more complex behaviors. Example A squashed ant will also release a burst of pheromones that warns nearby ants of dangerand may incite them to swarm and sting
2. Auditory signals
Auditory communication is communication based on sound and is widely used in the animal kingdom. Example in birds, who use sounds to convey warnings, attract mates, defend territories, and coordinate group behaviors.
3. Visual signals
Visual communication involves signals that can be seen. Examples of these signals include gestures, facial expressions, body postures, and coloration. This example animals chimpanzees communicate a threat by raising their arms, slapping the ground, or staring directly at another chimpanzee.
4. Tactile signals
Tactile signals are more limited in range than the other types of signals, as two organisms must be right next to each other in order to touch. Example, a honeybee forager that's found a food source will perform an intricate series of motions called a waggle dance to indicate the location of the food. Since this dance is done in darkness inside the nest, the other bees interpret it largely through touch.
CHAPTER IV
BRAIN LITERAZATION AND LANGUAGE ACQUISACTION
The Human Brain literaziation
The Cerebral Hemispheres, there are 2 The left and the right hemisphere. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, excel in analytic tasks (arithmetic). The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, excel in tasks which require overall appreciation of complex patterns (recognizing faces, melodies). e.g. people suffer damage to one hemisphere of the brain (stroke/accident) → paralysis on the opposite side of the body.
Right-hemisphere have language represented in the left hemisphere (left lateralized for language) losing left hemisphere = losing most of linguistic competence (the ability to speak & process complex syntactic patterns). The right hemisphere responsible for whatever language processing ability remains. Right-handed people who suffer damage to the right cerebral hemisphere exhibit difficulty in understanding jokes and metaphors in daily conversation e.g. He was wearing a loud tie. Frequently misunderstand people because they cannot use loudness and intonation as cues to whether a speaker is angry, excited, or merely joking. Has a distinct role to play in normal language use
Left hemisphere. Few left-handers have a mirror image representation for language (language localization in the right hemisphere). Tend to show significant language representation in both hemispheres→ generally less lateralized for language
First Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which language develops in humans. First language acquisition concerns the development of language in children. Second language acquisition focuses on language development in adults. Historically, theories and theorists may have emphasized either nature or nurture as the most important explanatory factor for acquisition.
The L1 is picked up at home in the most natural situations, guided and controlled by those who are near and dear to a child. The learning of L1 takes place along with other aspects of biological growth such as walking. The learning of L1 is governed by the principles of proximity, usefulness, concreteness, particularity and interest
Factors Affecting L1 Acquisition
Physical environment :the material surroundings of a child, e.g. dog, : house, cat, tree, table
Social environment : family and neighborhood
Physical and economic resources: the economical condition of the family
Motivation
→ internal: the need for food, warmth, shelter; constant care, love and affection
→ external: social interaction, self expression, creative behavior
e.g. children sometimes talk to cat, dog or dolls
An outstanding feature of the early language learning experience is egocentricity
→ children only pick up language items that are absolutely essential for them
→ the earliest pronouns: I, me, my, mine
The Critical Period Hypothesis
Contends that the ability to learn a language is limited to the years before puberty after which, as a result of neurological changes in the brain, the ability is lost. Unless they are exposed to language in the early years of life, humans lose muchof their innate ability to learn a language, and especially its grammatical system.
Second-Language Acquisition
Factors involved in Second Language Acquisition
1. Intellectual processing
There are only two ways to learn the structures and rules of SLA: someone can explain them to you (this way is termed Explication) or you can figure them out for yourself (this way is termed Induction).
Explication is the process whereby the rules and structures of a second language (L2) are explained to the learner in his or her native language. This term is effective for adults.
Induction is the learning rules by self-discovery. Children are more likely to learn L2 by this term.
2. Memory
Memory is crucial to learning. It is inconceivable that a person with a severe memory impairment could ever learn his or her native language, much less the L2.
The kind of simple memorization where words, phrases and sentences are remembered just as they are, is called rote memorization by psychologists.
The rote memory ability of very young children seems to be excellent in that they easily absorb a phenomenal amount of data. At some age it begins to decline.
3. Motor skills
Good pronunciation, which is related to the ability to control the organs of speech such as jaws, lips, tongue, vocal cords, etc., is clearly an essential part of learning a foreign language.
Evidence shows that the particular motor skill of speech pronunciation is best developed at a younger age.
4. Social factors
a. Natural situations
A natural situation for L2 learning is one where the second language is experienced in a situation that is similar to that in which the native language is learned.
e.g.: an English speaking 4-year-old girl from London who goes to Indonesia with her parents. Through playing with Indonesian children, she soon learns Bahasa Indonesia
b. Classroom situations
The classroom for L2 learning is a planned, or some might say, an artificially constructed, situation. Physically, there is a room, with the teacher and the students inside, which is arranged so that it is isolated from the rest of life. Whether the classroom is in a school that is in the community where the L2 is spoken is a matter of some importance.
e.g.: Indonesian learning English in a classroom in London (ESL) will have beneficial language experiences outside of the classroom that Indonesian learning English in a classroom in Jakarta (EFL) will not.
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